Airplane Flying Handbook

Chapter 8: Approaches and Landings

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The risk of an accident is greatest during the approach and landing, compared to any other phase of a flight. Forty-five percent (45%) of all general aviation accidents occur during the approach and landing. An overwhelming percentage of accidents are caused from the pilot's lack of proficiency. Correct procedures, when learned and practiced, are a key to attaining proficiency.

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Normal Approach and Landing

A normal approach and landing occurs under normal conditions:

• Engine power is available.
• The wind is light, or the final approach is made directly into the wind.
• The final approach path has no obstacles.
• The landing surface is firm enough to gradually bring the airplane to a stop.
• The landing surface is of ample length to gradually bring the airplane to a stop.
• The selected landing point is normally beyond the runway's approach threshold, and it is within the first one-third (1/3) of the runway.

The last part of the approach pattern and the actual landing is divided into five phases:

• Base leg
• Final approach
• Round-out (flare)
• Touchdown
• After-landing roll

Base leg

On the base leg, the pilot must accurately judge the altitude and distance from which a gradual, stabilized descent results in landing at the desired spot.

When there is a strong wind on final approach, with flaps deployed, the base leg must be positioned closer to the approach end of the runway than would be required with a light wind or no flaps.

After turning onto the base leg, start the descent with reduced power and airspeed of approximately 1.4 Vso (140% of stalling speed in a landing configuration).

Full flaps are not recommended until the final approach is established.

When on the base leg, in order to follow a ground track perpendicular to the runway's extended centerline (when wind is present), a wind-correction angle is established and maintained. Since landing is normally done into the wind, on base leg the airplane will be angled into the wind sufficiently to cancel the effect of drift.

The base leg is flown to the point where a medium- to shallow-banked descending turn aligns the airplane's path with the centerline of the runway. The steeper the angle of bank, the higher the airspeed at which the airplane stalls. Therefore, the turn to final should not be a steep turn. If the pilot overshoots the runway and cannot reacquire the extended centerline with a medium-banked turn, with a landing assured in the first one-third of the runway, a go-around should be initiated.

Final approach

On final approach, longitudinal axis of the airplane is aligned with the runway centerline so that drift (if any) is recognized immediately. If no wind is present, the longitudinal axis is kept aligned with the runway centerline throughout the approach and landing.

After aligning the airplane with the runway centerline, the final flap setting is completed and the pitch attitude adjusted for the desired airspeed. Typically, an airspeed of 1.3 Vso (130% of stalling speed) is used. The AFM/POH will provide a specific airspeed for final approach. Power is adjusted to maintain the desired angle of descent.

Adjustments in pitch and power may be necessary to maintain the descent attitude and the desired approach airspeed, with trim applied to relieve control pressures.

A stabilized descent angle is controlled throughout the approach so that the airplane lands in the center of the first third of the runway. When all forces are constant in a no-wind condition, the descent angle is constant. However, when wind is present, the pilot will use pitch and power adjustments to maintain the flightpath to the runway.

Never try to stretch a glide by applying back-elevator pressure alone to reach the desired landing spot. This shortens the gliding distance if power is not added simultaneously. The proper angle of descent and airspeed is maintained by coordinating pitch attitude changes and power changes.

The objective of a good, stabilized final approach is to descend at an angle and airspeed that permits the airplane to reach the desired touchdown point at an airspeed that results in minimum floating just before touchdown. To achieve this, the descent angle and the airspeed be accurately controlled.

If the approach is too high, lower the nose and reduce the power. If the approach is too low, add power and raise the nose.

Use of Flaps

Flap extension during landings provides several advantages:

• Flaps produce greater drag, permitting a steeper descent angle without an increase in airspeed.
• Flaps produce greater lift, permitting lower landing speed.
• Because landing speed is reduced, flaps also reduce the length of the landing roll.

Flap extension has a definite effect on the airplane's pitch behavior, which is called a pitching moment. This can be a pitch-up or pitch-down effect when flaps are deployed. The specific pitch behavior depends on the design features of the particular airplane.

Flap deflection of up to 15° primarily produces lift with minimal drag. The airplane will tend to balloon up with initial flap deflection because of the lift increase, while any nose-down pitching moment will tend to offset this.

Flap deflection beyond 15° produces a large increase in drag. It also produces a significant nose-up pitching moment in high-wing airplanes. This is due to the resulting downwash, which increases the airflow over the horizontal tail.

Large flap deflections at one single point in the landing pattern produce large lift changes. This will require the pilot to input significant pitch and power changes in order to maintain airspeed and descent angle. Thus, there is an advantage to extending flaps in increments while in the landing pattern — on the downwind, base, and final approach legs.

When the flaps are lowered, the airspeed decreases. This can be offset by an increase in power and/or a lowering of the pitch attitude.

On final approach, the pilot must estimate the airplane's touchdown point by evaluating the descent angle. If it appears that the airplane is going to overshoot the touchdown point, additional flaps are extended (if available), and/or the power is further reduced, and/or the pitch attitude is lowered.

If the desired landing spot is being undershot and a shallower approach is needed, both power and pitch attitude are increased to readjust the descent angle.

Flaps are never retracted to correct an undershoot, since this will decrease lift and cause the airplane to sink rapidly.

Estimating Height and Movement

During the approach, round-out, and touchdown, the pilot's head should assume a natural, straight-ahead position to provide a wide scope of vision and to foster good judgment.

Visual focus is not fixed on any one side or any one spot ahead of the airplane. Instead, it is changed slowly from a point just over the airplane's nose to the desired touchdown zone and back again. Peripheral vision is used to maintain a deliberate awareness of distance from either side of the runway.

The distance at which the pilot's vision is focused should be proportionate to the speed at which the airplane is traveling over the ground. As speed is reduced during the round-out, the focal distance ahead of the airplane becomes closer.

If the pilot attempts to focus on a reference that is too close or looks directly down, the pilot's reaction will be either too abrupt or too late. In this case, the pilot's tendency is to over-control, round out high, and make a full-stall, drop-in landing.

If the pilot focuses too far ahead, accuracy in judging the closeness of the ground is lost. The consequent reaction is too slow, since there does not appear to be a need for action. This results in the airplane flying into the ground nose first.

If the focus is changed gradually, being brought progressively closer as speed is reduced, the time interval and the pilot's reaction are reduced, and the whole landing process is smoothed out.

Round-Out (Flare)

The round-out — also called the flare — is a slow, smooth transition from a normal approach attitude to a landing attitude. The pilot gradually rounds out the flightpath to one that is parallel with, and within a very few inches above, the runway.

During the round out, the airspeed is decreased to touchdown speed while the lift is controlled so the airplane settles gently onto the landing surface.

The round-out is started ten (10) to twenty (20) feet above the ground. This is a continuous process until the airplane touches down on the ground.

As the airplane reaches a height above the ground where a change into the proper landing attitude can be made, the pilot used back-pressure to increase angle of attack (AOA) a rate that allows the airplane to continue settling slowly as forward speed decreases.

When the AOA is increased, the lift is momentarily increased, which decreases the rate of descent. Power normally is reduced to idle during the round-out, which decreases the airspeed.

The rate of rounding out must be proportionate to the rate of closure with the ground.

Flare cues are primarily dependent on the angle at which the pilot's central vision intersects the ground (or runway) ahead and slightly to the side. Visual cues used most are those related to changes in runway or terrain perspective. Focus direct central vision at a shallow downward angle from 10° to 15° toward the runway as the flare is initiated.

Maintaining the same viewing angle causes the point of visual interception with the runway to move progressively rearward as the airplane loses altitude. This is an important visual cue in assessing the rate of altitude loss.

Conversely, forward movement of the visual interception point indicates an increase in altitude and means that the pitch angle was increased too rapidly, resulting in an excessive flare.

Location of the visual interception point, in conjunction with assessment of flow velocity of nearby off-runway terrain, is used to judge when the wheels are just a few inches above the runway.

The similarity of appearance of height above the runway ahead of the airplane — in comparison to the way it looked when the airplane was taxied prior to takeoff — is also used to judge when the wheels are just a few inches above the runway.

To attain the proper landing attitude before touching down, the nose must travel through a greater pitch change when flaps are fully extended. The pitch attitude must be increased at a faster rate when full flaps are used, but always at a rate proportionate to the airplane's downward motion.

Once the actual process of rounding out is started, do not push the elevator control forward. If the round-out is inaccurate, pressure is either slightly relaxed or held constant. It may be necessary to advance the throttle slightly to prevent an excessive rate of sink or a stall, either of which results in a hard, drop-in type landing.

One hand should remain on the throttle throughout the approach and landing. A sudden and unexpected hazardous situation may require an immediate application of power.

Touchdown

The touchdown is the gentle settling of the airplane onto the landing surface. This is normally done with the engine idling and the airplane at minimum controllable airspeed. The airplane should touch down on the main gear at approximately stalling speed. The proper landing attitude is attained by application of whatever back-elevator pressure is necessary.

A common technique to making a smooth touchdown is to focus on holding the wheels of the aircraft a few inches off the ground as long as possible using back-elevator pressure while the power is smoothly reduced to idle.

When the wheels are within two or three feet off the ground, the airplane is still settling too fast for a gentle touchdown. The descent must be retarded by increasing back-elevator pressure. Since the airplane is already close to its stalling speed and is settling, this added back-elevator pressure only slows the settling instead of stopping it. The airplane should touch down in the proper landing attitude with the main wheels touching down first so that little or no weight is on the nose wheel.

After the main wheels make initial contact with the ground, back-elevator pressure is held for aerodynamic braking. This also holds the nose wheel off the ground until the airplane decelerates. As the airplane's momentum decreases, back-elevator pressure is gradually relaxed to allow the nose wheel to gently settle onto the runway.

It is extremely important that the touchdown occur with the airplane's longitudinal axis exactly parallel to the direction in which the airplane is moving along the runway. Failure to accomplish this imposes severe side loads on the landing gear. Do not allow the airplane to touch down while turned into the wind or drifting.

After-Landing Roll

The landing process is not complete until the airplane decelerates to the normal taxi speed during the landing roll, or until it has been brought to a complete stop when clear of the landing area.

Loss of directional control may lead to an aggravated, uncontrolled, tight turn on the ground.

The rudder controls the yawing of the airplane. Its effectiveness is dependent on airflow, which depends on the speed of the airplane. As the speed decreases and the nose wheel has been lowered to the ground, the steerable nose provides more positive directional control.

Brakes can be used as an aid in directional control, when more positive control is required than can be obtained with rudder or nose wheel steering alone.

Maximum weight on the wheels after touchdown creates optimum braking performance. During deceleration, back-elevator pressure is applied without lifting the nose wheel off the runway. This enables directional control while keeping weight on the main wheels.

If the brakes are applied so hard that skidding takes place, braking becomes ineffective. Skidding is stopped by releasing the brake pressure.

If a wing starts to rise during the after-landing roll, aileron control is applied toward that wing to lower it. As the forward speed of the airplane decreases, the ailerons become less effective.

Back-elevator pressure is gradually relaxed to place weight on the nose wheel to aid in better steering.

When the airplane has exited the runway and come to a stop, perform the after-landing checklist.

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Stabilized Approach Concept

A stabilized approach is one in which the pilot establishes and maintains a constant angle glide path towards a predetermined point on the landing runway. It requires a constant final descent airspeed and configuration.

An airplane descending on final approach at a constant rate and airspeed is traveling in a straight line toward a spot on the ground ahead, which is known as the aiming point. This is not where the airplane will touch down, but instead where the airplane would strike the ground if not flared for landing. Some float occurs during the flare, after which the airplane will touch down.

In a stabilized approach, the aiming point appears stationary. Objects in front of and beyond the aiming point will appear to move as the distance is closed. The pilot must use visual cues to accurately determine the true aiming point from any distance out on final approach. The pilot should be able to predict an overshoot or undershoot, and take corrective action if necessary. The pilot also should be able to predict the touchdown point to within a few feet.

In a stabilized approach, if the aiming point is moving down (away) from the horizon, then the true aiming point is farther down the runway. If the aiming point is moving up toward the horizon, the true aiming point is closer than perceived.

When viewed from the air, perspective causes the runway to appear as a trapezoid. The far end looks narrower than the approach end. The edge lines converge over the runway's total distance.

During a stabilized approach, the runway shape does not change. If the approach becomes shallow, the runway appears to shorten and become wider. If the approach is steepened, the runway appears to become longer and narrower

If there is any indication that the aiming point on the runway is not where desired, an adjustment must be made to the glide path. if the aiming point is short of the desired touchdown point, increase pitch attitude and power simultaneously, so that a constant airspeed is maintained. If the aiming point is farther down the runway than the desired touchdown point, steepen the glide path with a simultaneous decrease in pitch attitude and power. Airspeed remains constant.

Common errors in the performance of normal approaches and landings include.

• Inadequate wind drift correction on the base leg.
• Overshooting or undershooting the turn onto final approach resulting in too steep or too shallow a turn onto final approach.
• Flat or skidding turns from base leg to final approach as a result of overshooting/inadequate wind drift correction.
• Poor coordination during turn from base to final approach.
• Failure to complete the landing checklist in a timely manner.
• Unstable approach.
• Failure to adequately compensate for flap extension.
• Poor trim technique on final approach.
• Attempting to maintain altitude or reach the runway using elevator alone.
• Focusing too close to the airplane resulting in a too high round out.
• Focusing too far from the airplane resulting in a too low round out.
• Touching down prior to attaining proper landing attitude.
• Failure to hold sufficient back-elevator pressure after touchdown.
• Excessive braking after touchdown.
• Loss of aircraft control during touchdown and roll out.

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Intentional Slips

A slip occurs when the bank angle of an airplane is too steep for the existing rate of turn. Intentional slips are used to dissipate altitude without increasing airspeed and/or to adjust airplane ground track during a crosswind.

Pilots flying airplanes that do not have flaps installed may use intentional slips to steepen their final approach course. Slips also are used when obstacles must be cleared during approaches to confined areas. A slip may be used in an emergency, such as where wing flaps are inoperative, or during forced landings.

A slip is a combination of forward and sideward movement. An airplane in a slip is flying sideways, resulting in a change in the direction that the relative wind strikes the airplane.

Intentional slips are characterized by a marked increase in drag, which makes it possible for an airplane to descend rapidly without an increase in airspeed.

Because most airplanes have positive static directional stability, they will compensate for slipping. An intentional slip, therefore, requires deliberate cross-controlling ailerons and rudder throughout the maneuver.

A sideslip is entered by lowering a wing and applying just enough opposite rudder to prevent a turn. The airplane's longitudinal axis remains parallel to the original flightpath. However, the airplane moves somewhat sideways toward the low wing. The amount of slip, and resulting sideways movement, is determined by the bank angle, with corresponding opposite rudder to prevent turning.

Sideslips are frequently used when landing with a crosswind to keep the aircraft aligned with the runway centerline while stopping any drift left or right of the centerline.

A forward slip is one in which the airplane's direction of motion continues the same as before the slip was begun. The wing on the side toward which the slip is to be made is lowered with ailerons. Simultaneously, the nose is yawed in the opposite direction with opposite rudder. The airplane's longitudinal axis is at an angle to its original flightpath.

The amount of forward slip, and therefore the sink rate, is determined by the bank angle. The steeper the bank is, the steeper the descent.

In both sideslips and forward slips, the point may be reached where full rudder is required to maintain heading even though the ailerons are capable of further steepening the bank angle. This is the practical slip limit. Beyond this point, any additional bank would cause the airplane to turn, even with full opposite rudder applied.

If there is a need to descend more rapidly beyond the practical slip limit, lowering the will increase the sink rate, although such also will increase airspeed. This will increase rudder effectiveness. At higher pitch attitudes, rudder effectiveness decreases.

Because of the location of the pitot tube and static vents, airspeed indicators in some airplanes may have considerable error when the airplane is in a slip. Pilots should recognize a properly performed slip by the attitude of the airplane, the sound of the airflow, and the feel of the flight controls.

If an airplane stalls while in a slip, it will display very little of the yawing tendency that causes a skidding stall to develop into a spin. It may tend to roll into a wings level attitude. In some airplanes, stall characteristics may even be improved.

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Go-Arounds (Rejected Landings)

A pilot may decide to execute a go-around, also known as a rejected landing, due to one or more factors, including:

• Air traffic control (ATC) requirements
• Unexpected appearance of hazards on the runway
• Overtaking another airplane
• Wind shear
• Wake turbulence
• Mechanical failure
• An unstable approach

A go-around is not always the result of a poor approach, insufficient experience, or insufficient skill. A go-around is not an emergency procedure, but instead a normal maneuver that is also used in an emergency situation.

The flight instructor needs to emphasize early on, and the pilot must be made to understand, that the go-around maneuver is an alternative to any approach and/or landing.

The decision to go-around may arise at any point in the landing process. However, the most critical go-around is one started when very close to the ground. The maneuver is generally safer when the decision to go around is made sooner, rather than at the last possible moment. The go-around is only dangerous when delayed unduly or executed improperly.

Delay to go-around may be caused by latency — the belief that conditions are not threatening, and that a safe landing is assured.

Delay also may be caused by pride — the mistaken belief that the act of going around is an admission of failure.

The instant a pilot decides to go around, full or maximum allowable takeoff power must be applied smoothly and without hesitation and held until flying speed and controllability are restored. Carburetor heat is turned off to obtain maximum power.

A concern for quickly regaining altitude during a go-around produces a natural tendency to pull the nose up. The airplane executing a go-around must be maintained in an attitude that permits a buildup of airspeed well beyond the stall point before any effort is made to gain altitude or to execute a turn. In some circumstances, it is desirable to lower the nose briefly to gain airspeed.

Caution must be used in retracting the flaps when executing a go-around. Flaps should be retracted in small increments to allow time for the airplane to accelerate progressively as they are being raised. A sudden and complete retraction of the flaps could cause a loss of lift. Once the descent has been stopped, the landing flaps can be partially retracted or placed in the takeoff position.

In most airplanes, flaps should be retracted — at least partially — before retracting the landing gear. This is because flaps create more drag than landing gear. It's also because the landing gear may be necessary in the event of an inadvertent landing. Landing gear should only be retracted after a positive rate of climb is established.

Airplane control is critical during this high-workload phase of flight. When takeoff power is applied, application of maximum allowable power requires considerable control pressure to maintain a climb pitch attitude. This is because the airplane is trimmed for the approach. When climb airspeed and pitch attitude are attained, rough trim the airplane to relieve any adverse control pressures. Right rudder pressure must be increased to counteract left-turning propeller forces. The airplane must be held in the proper flight attitude regardless of the amount of control pressure that is required.

Ground effect can be an important factor in go-arounds, if the go-around is made close to the ground. Pilots can feel a false sense of security by the apparent cushion of air under the wings, which initially assists in the transition from an approach descent to a climb. This is "borrowed performance" that must be repaid when the airplane climbs out of the ground effect area. Pilots should only attempt to a climb out of ground effect after attaining a suitable airspeed.

Common errors in the performance of go-arounds include:

• Failure to recognize a condition that warrants a rejected landing
• Indecision
• Delay in initiating a go-around
• Failure to apply maximum allowable power in a timely manner
• Abrupt power application
• Improper pitch attitude
• Failure to configure the airplane appropriately
• Attempting to climb out of ground effect prematurely
• Failure to adequately compensate for torque/P factor
• Loss of aircraft control

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Crosswind Approach and Landing

There are two usual methods of accomplishing a crosswind approach and landing — the crab method and the wing-low method, also known as the sideslip method.

Although the crab method may be easier for the pilot to maintain during final approach, it requires a high degree of judgment and timing in removing the crab immediately prior to touchdown.

The wing-low method is recommended in most cases. A combination of both methods may be used.

Crosswind Final Approach

The crab method is executed by establishing a heading into the wind with the wings level so that the airplane's ground track remains aligned with the centerline of the runway. In this sense, the airplane's heading and track are notably different, similar to the sideways movement of a crab.

The crab angle is maintained until just prior to touchdown, when the longitudinal axis of the airplane must be aligned with the runway to avoid sideward contact of the wheels with the runway. The crab method also can be maintained until just before the round out is started, at which point the pilot smoothly changes to the wing-low method for the remainder of the landing.

The wing-low method compensates for a crosswind from any angle. It keeps the airplane's ground track and longitudinal axis aligned with the runway centerline throughout the final approach, round out, touchdown, and after-landing roll. This reduces the risk of side-loading the landing gear.

In the wing-low method, drift is controlled with aileron and the heading with rudder.

To use the wing-low method, align the airplane's heading with the centerline of the runway, note the rate and direction of drift, and promptly apply drift correction by lowering the upwind wing. To prevent the airplane from turning in the direction of the lowered wing, apply sufficient opposite rudder pressure. This will keep the airplane's longitudinal axis aligned with the runway.

When using the wing-low method in a strong crosswind, the upwind wing will be lowered a considerable amount, producing a stronger turning tendency and requiring more opposite rudder. If full opposite rudder does not prevent does not maintain centerline, the wind is too strong to safely land, and another option should be considered, such as an alternate runway or airport.

Crosswind Round-Out (Flare)

The crosswind correction must be maintained during the round-out. As the flight control surfaces become less effective at slower airspeeds, rudder and aileron deflections will gradually increase.

Keep the upwind wing down throughout the round-out. If the wings are leveled, touchdown will occur during drift, which will side-load the landing gear.

Crosswind Touchdown

The crab method requires timely and accurate action, since the crab angle must be removed the instant before touchdown by applying rudder to align the airplane's longitudinal axis with its direction of movement. Failure to do this can result in severe side-loads.

The wing-low method requires the crosswind correction to be maintained throughout the round out. The touchdown made on the upwind main wheel. As the forward momentum decreases after initial contact, the downwind main wheel will to gradually settle onto the runway.

If the airplane's steerable nosewheel disconnects during flight, it should be aligned with the flightpath during landing. If the nosewheel does not disconnect during flight, corrective rudder pressure must be removed before the nose wheel touches down.

A well-executed wing-low landing will have a distinctive "one, two, three" cadence as all three wheels make contact with the runway in sequence — upwind main, downwind main, and then nosewheel.

Crosswind After-Landing Roll

Maintaining control on the ground is a critical part of the after-landing roll because of the weathervaning effect of the wind on the airplane.

During the landing roll, directional control must be maintained by the use of rudder or nose-wheel steering. Any rising of the upwind wing should be countered with aileron. Aileron application should be increased as the airplane slows to keep the upwind wing from rising in the crosswind. When the airplane is coming to a stop, the aileron control must be held fully toward the wind.

On roll-out, the relative wind comprises the natural wind and the headwind. The natural wind acts in the direction the air mass is traveling. The headwind is induced by the forward movement of the airplane, acting parallel to the direction of movement. As the airplane's forward speed decreases during the after landing roll, the headwind component diminishes, and the airplane is more apt to weathervane due to the natural wind (the crosswind component of the relative wind), which becomes more significant.

For each high-wing, tricycle-geared airplane, there is a cornering angle at which roll-over is inevitable. Cornering angle is the angular difference between the heading of a tire and its path. As little as 10° of cornering angle creates a side load equal to half the supported weight.

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Maximum Safe Crosswind Velocities

Takeoffs and landings in certain crosswind conditions are inadvisable or even dangerous.

An FAA-certified airplane must be controllable — with no exceptional degree of skill or alertness on the part of the pilot — in 90° crosswinds up to a velocity equal to 0.2 Vso. Thus, an airplane with a stalling speed (in landing configuration) of 40 knots must be able to land in an 8-knot, 90° crosswind.

The headwind component and the crosswind component for a given situation is determined by reference to a crosswind component chart. The chart can be found in the POH/AFM. It is required on a placard in airplanes certificated after May 3, 1962.

Using the wind velocity and angle of the wind compared to the runway heading, pilots can consult the crosswind component chart and quickly determine if their airplane is suitable for landing in given conditions. Pilots must avoid operations in wind conditions that exceed the capability of the airplane.

Common errors in the performance of crosswind approaches and landings include:

• Attempting to land in crosswinds that exceed the airplane's maximum demonstrated crosswind component
• Inadequate compensation for wind drift on the turn from base leg to final approach, resulting in undershooting or overshooting
• Inadequate compensation for wind drift on final approach
• Unstable approach
• Failure to compensate for increased drag during sideslip resulting in excessive sink rate and/or too low an airspeed
• Touchdown while drifting
• Excessive airspeed on touchdown
• Failure to apply appropriate flight control inputs during rollout
• Failure to maintain direction control on rollout
• Excessive braking
• Loss of aircraft control

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Turbulent Air Approach and Landing

For landing in turbulent conditions, use a power-on approach at an airspeed slightly above the normal approach speed. This provides for more positive control of the airplane when strong horizontal wind gusts, or up and down drafts, are experienced.

To maintain control during an approach in turbulent air with gusty crosswind, use partial wing flaps, which will place the airplane in a higher-than-normal pitch attitude. This requires less of a pitch change to establish the landing attitude and touchdown. The higher airspeed ensures more positive control. However, excessive speed causes the airplane to float past the desired landing area.

Retard the throttle to idling position only after the main wheels contact the landing surface. In turbulent conditions, the sudden or premature closing of the throttle may cause a sudden increase in the descent rate that results in a hard landing.

One procedure is to use the normal approach speed plus one-half of the wind gust factors. Thus, If the normal speed is 70 knots, and the wind gusts are 15 knots, an increase of airspeed to 77 knots is appropriate. Always consult the POH/AFM for specific recommendations.

Touchdown is made with the airplane in approximately level flight attitude — enough to prevent the nose wheel from contacting the surface before the main wheels have touched the surface. After touchdown, avoid the tendency to apply forward pressure on the yoke. Avoid heavy braking until the wings are devoid of lift and the airplane's full weight is resting on the landing gear.

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Short-Field Approach and Landing

Short-field approaches and landings require the use of procedures for approaches and landings at fields with a relatively short landing area or where an approach is made over obstacles that limit the available landing area. As in short-field takeoffs, it is one of the most critical of the maximum performance operations.

Short field operations require the pilot fly the airplane at one of its crucial performance capabilities while close to the ground in order to safely land within confined areas. This low-speed type of power-on approach is closely related to the performance of flight at minimum controllable airspeeds.

To land within a short-field or a confined area, the pilot must have precise, positive control of the rate of descent and airspeed to produce an approach that:

• Clears any obstacles
• Results in little or no floating during the round out
• Permits the airplane to be stopped in the shortest possible distance

The procedures for landing in a short-field or for landing approaches over obstacles as recommended in the AFM/ POH should be used. A stabilized approach is essential. These procedures generally involve the use of full flaps and the final approach started from an altitude of at least 500 feet higher than the touchdown area.

A wider than normal pattern is normally used so that the airplane can be properly configured and trimmed.

In the absence of the manufacturer's recommended approach speed, a speed of not more than 1.3 VSO is used. For example, in an airplane that stalls at 60 knots with power off, and flaps and landing gear extended, an approach speed no higher than 78 knots is used.

In gusty air, no more than one-half the gust factor is added. An excessive amount of airspeed could result in a touchdown too far from the runway threshold or an after-landing roll that exceeds the available landing area.

After the landing gear and full flaps have been extended, simultaneously adjust the power and the pitch attitude to establish and maintain the proper descent angle and airspeed. A coordinated combination of both pitch and power adjustments is required. When this is done properly, very little change in the airplane's pitch attitude and power setting is necessary to make corrections in the angle of descent and airspeed.

The short-field approach and landing is in reality an accuracy approach to a spot landing. The procedures previously outlined in the section on the stabilized approach concept are used.

If it appears that the obstacle clearance is excessive and touchdown occurs well beyond the desired spot leaving insufficient room to stop, power is reduced while lowering the pitch attitude to steepen the descent path and increase the rate of descent.

If it appears that the descent angle does not ensure safe clearance of obstacles, power is increased while simultaneously raising the pitch attitude to shallow the descent path and decrease the rate of descent.

Care must be taken to avoid an excessively low airspeed. If the speed is allowed to become too slow, an increase in pitch and application of full power may only result in a further rate of descent. This occurs when the AOA is so great and creating so much drag that the maximum available power is insufficient to overcome it. This is generally referred to as operating in the region of reversed command or operating on the back side of the power curve. When there is doubt regarding the outcome of the approach, make a go around and try again or divert to a more suitable landing area.

Because the final approach over obstacles is made at a relatively steep approach angle and close to the airplane's stalling speed, the initiation of the round out or flare must be judged accurately to avoid flying into the ground or stalling prematurely and sinking rapidly. A lack of floating during the flare with sufficient control to touch down properly is verification that the approach speed was correct.

Touchdown should occur at the minimum controllable airspeed with the airplane in approximately the pitch attitude that results in a power-off stall when the throttle is closed. Care must be exercised to avoid closing the throttle too rapidly, as closing the throttle may result in an immediate increase in the rate of descent and a hard landing.

Upon touchdown, the airplane is held in this positive pitch attitude as long as the elevators remain effective. This provides aerodynamic braking to assist in deceleration. Immediately upon touchdown and closing the throttle, appropriate braking is applied to minimize the after-landing roll. The airplane is normally stopped within the shortest possible distance consistent with safety and controllability. If the proper approach speed has been maintained, resulting in minimum float during the round out and the touchdown made at minimum control speed, minimum braking is required.

Common errors in the performance of short-field approaches and landings are:

• Failure to allow enough room on final to set up the approach, necessitating an overly steep approach and high sink rate
• Unstable approach
• Undue delay in initiating glide path corrections
• Too low an airspeed on final resulting in inability to flare properly and landing hard
• Too high an airspeed resulting in floating on round out
• Prematurely reducing power to idle on round out resulting in hard landing
• Touchdown with excessive airspeed
• Excessive and/or unnecessary braking after touchdown
• Failure to maintain directional control
• Failure to recognize and abort a poor approach that cannot be completed safely

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Soft-Field Approach and Landing

Landing on fields that are rough or have soft surfaces, such as snow, sand, mud, or tall grass, require unique procedures. When landing on such surfaces, the objective is to touch down as smooth as possible and at the slowest possible landing speed. A pilot must control the airplane in a manner that the wings support the weight of the airplane as long as practical to minimize drag and stresses imposed on the landing gear by the rough or soft surface.

The approach for the soft-field landing is similar to the normal approach used for operating into long, firm landing areas. The major difference between the two is that during the soft- field landing, the airplane is held 1 to 2 feet off the surface in ground effect as long as possible. This permits a more gradual dissipation of forward speed to allow the wheels to touch down gently at minimum speed. This technique minimizes the nose-over forces that suddenly affect the airplane at the moment of touchdown. Power is used throughout the level-off and touchdown to ensure touchdown at the slowest possible airspeed, and the airplane is flown onto the ground with the weight fully supported by the wings.

The use of flaps during soft-field landings aids in touching down at minimum speed and is recommended whenever practical. In low-wing airplanes, the flaps may suffer damage from mud, stones, or slush thrown up by the wheels. If flaps are used, it is generally inadvisable to retract them during the after-landing roll because the need for flap retraction is less important than the need for total concentration on maintaining full control of the airplane. The final-approach airspeed used for short-field landings is equally appropriate to soft-field landings. The use of higher approach speeds may result in excessive float in ground effect, and floating makes a smooth, controlled touchdown even more difficult. There is no reason for a steep angle of descent unless obstacles are present in the approach path.

Touchdown on a soft or rough field is made at the lowest possible airspeed with the airplane in a nose-high pitch attitude. In nose-wheel type airplanes, after the main wheels touch the surface, hold sufficient back-elevator pressure to keep the nose wheel off the surface. Using back-elevator pressure and engine power, the pilot can control the rate at which the weight of the airplane is transferred from the wings to the wheels.

Field conditions may warrant that the pilot maintain a flight condition in which the main wheels are just touching the surface but the weight of the airplane is still being supported by the wings until a suitable taxi surface is reached. At any time during this transition phase, before the weight of the airplane is being supported by the wheels, and before the nose wheel is on the surface, the ability is retained to apply full power and perform a safe takeoff (obstacle clearance and field length permitting) should the pilot elect to abandon the landing. Once committed to a landing, the pilot should gently lower the nose wheel to the surface. A slight addition of power usually aids in easing the nose wheel down.

The use of brakes on a soft field is not needed and should be avoided as this may tend to impose a heavy load on the nose gear due to premature or hard contact with the landing surface, causing the nose wheel to dig in. The soft or rough surface itself provides sufficient reduction in the airplane's forward speed. Often upon landing on a very soft field, an increase in power is required to keep the airplane moving and from becoming stuck in the soft surface.

Common errors in the performance of soft-field approaches and landings are:

• Excessive descent rate on final approach
• Excessive airspeed on final approach
• Unstable approach
• Round out too high above the runway surface
• Poor power management during round out and touchdown
• Hard touchdown
• Inadequate control of the airplane weight transfer from wings to wheels after touchdown
• Allowing the nose wheel to "fall" to the runway after touchdown rather than controlling its descent

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Power-Off Accuracy Approaches

Power-off accuracy approaches are approaches and landings made by gliding with the engine idling, through a specific pattern to a touchdown beyond and within 200 feet of a designated line or mark on the runway. The objective is to instill in the pilot the judgment and procedures necessary for accurately flying the airplane, without power, to a safe landing.

The ability to estimate the distance an airplane glides to a landing is the real basis of all power-off accuracy approaches and landings. This largely determines the amount of maneuvering that may be done from a given altitude. In addition to the ability to estimate distance, it requires the ability to maintain the proper glide while maneuvering the airplane.

With experience and practice, altitudes up to approximately 1,000 feet can be estimated with fair accuracy; while above this level the accuracy in judgment of height above the ground decreases, since all features tend to merge. The best aid in perfecting the ability to judge height above this altitude is through the indications of the altimeter and associating them with the general appearance of the Earth.

The judgment of altitude is not as important as the ability to estimate gliding angle and its resultant distance. A pilot who knows the normal glide angle of the airplane can estimate with reasonable accuracy, the approximate spot along a given ground path at which the airplane lands, regardless of altitude. A pilot who also has the ability to accurately estimate altitude, can judge how much maneuvering is possible during the glide, which is important to the choice of landing areas in an actual emergency.

The objective of a good final approach is to descend at an angle that permits the airplane to reach the desired landing area and at an airspeed that results in minimum floating just before touchdown. To accomplish this, it is essential that both the descent angle and the airspeed be accurately controlled.

Unlike a normal approach when the power setting is variable, on a power-off approach the power is fixed at the idle setting. Pitch attitude is adjusted to control the airspeed. This also changes the glide or descent angle. By lowering the nose to keep the approach airspeed constant, the descent angle steepens. If the airspeed is too high, raise the nose, and when the airspeed is too low, lower the nose. If the pitch attitude is raised too high, the airplane settles rapidly due to a slow airspeed and insufficient lift. For this reason, never try to stretch a glide to reach the desired landing spot.

Uniform approach patterns, such as the 90°, 180°, or 360° power-off approaches are described further in this chapter. Practice in these approaches provides a pilot with a basis on which to develop judgment in gliding distance and in planning an approach.

The basic procedure in these approaches involves closing the throttle at a given altitude and gliding to a key position. This position, like the pattern itself, must not be allowed to become the primary objective; it is merely a convenient point in the air from which the pilot can judge whether the glide safely terminates at the desired spot. The selected key position should be one that is appropriate for the available altitude and the wind condition. From the key position, the pilot must constantly evaluate the situation.

It must be emphasized that, although accurate spot touchdowns are important, safe and properly executed approaches and landings are vital. A pilot must never sacrifice a good approach or landing just to land on the desired spot.

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90° Power-Off Approach

The 90° power-off approach is made from a base leg and requires only a 90° turn onto the final approach. The approach path may be varied by positioning the base leg closer to or farther out from the approach end of the runway according to wind conditions.

The glide from the key position on the base leg through the 90° turn to the final approach is the final part of all accuracy landing maneuvers.

The 90° power-off approach usually begins from a rectangular pattern at approximately 1,000 feet above the ground or at normal traffic pattern altitude. The airplane is flown on a downwind leg at the same distance from the landing surface as in a normal traffic pattern.

The before landing checklist should be completed on the downwind leg, including extension of the landing gear if the airplane is equipped with retractable gear.

After a medium-banked turn onto the base leg is completed, the throttle is retarded slightly and the airspeed allowed to decrease to the normal base-leg speed. On the base leg, the airspeed, wind drift correction, and altitude are maintained while proceeding to the 45° key position. At this position, the intended landing spot appears to be on a 45° angle from the airplane's nose.

The pilot can determine the strength and direction of the wind from the amount of crab necessary to hold the desired ground track on the base leg. This helps in planning the turn onto the final approach and in lowering the correct number of flaps.

At the 45° key position, the throttle is closed completely, the propeller control (if equipped) advanced to the full increase revolution per minute (RPM) position, and altitude maintained until the airspeed decreases to the manufacturer's recommended glide speed. In the absence of a recommended speed, use 1.4 VSO. When this airspeed is attained, the nose is lowered to maintain the gliding speed and the controls trimmed.

The base-to-final turn is planned and accomplished so that upon rolling out of the turn, the airplane is aligned with the runway centerline. When on final approach, the wing flaps are lowered and the pitch attitude adjusted, as necessary, to establish the proper descent angle and airspeed (1.3 VSO), then the controls trimmed. Slight adjustments in pitch attitude or flaps setting are used as necessary to control the glide angle and airspeed. However, never try to stretch the glide or retract the flaps to reach the desired landing spot. The final approach may be made with or without the use of slips.

After the final-approach glide has been established, full attention is then given to making a good, safe landing rather than concentrating on the selected landing spot. The base- leg position and the flap setting already determined the probability of landing on the spot. In any event, it is better to execute a good landing 200 feet from the spot than to make a poor landing precisely on the spot.

180° Power-Off Approach

The 180° power-off approach is executed by gliding with the power off from a given point on a downwind leg to a preselected landing spot. It is an extension of the principles involved in the 90° power-off approach just described. The objective is to further develop judgment in estimating distances and glide ratios, in that the airplane is flown without power from a higher altitude and through a 90° turn to reach the base-leg position at a proper altitude for executing the 90° approach.

When abreast of or opposite the desired landing spot, the throttle is closed and altitude maintained while decelerating to the manufacturer's recommended glide speed or 1.4 VSO. The point at which the throttle is closed is the downwind key position.

The turn from the downwind leg to the base leg is a uniform turn with a medium or slightly steeper bank. The degree of bank and amount of this initial turn depend upon the glide angle of the airplane and the velocity of the wind.

Again, the base leg is positioned as needed for the altitude or wind condition. Position the base leg to conserve or dissipate altitude so as to reach the desired landing spot.

The turn onto the base leg is made at an altitude high enough and close enough to permit the airplane to glide to what would normally be the base key position in a 90° power-off approach.

Although the key position is important, it must not be overemphasized nor considered as a fixed point on the ground. Many inexperienced pilots may gain a conception of it as a particular landmark, such as a tree, crossroad, or other visual reference, to be reached at a certain altitude. This misconception leaves the pilot at a total loss any time such objects are not present. Both altitude and geographical location should be varied as much as is practical to eliminate any such misconceptions.

After reaching the base key position, the approach and landing are the same as in the 90° power-off approach.

Common errors in the performance of power-off accuracy approaches are:

• Downwind leg is too far from the runway/landing area
• Overextension of downwind leg resulting from a tailwind
• Inadequate compensation for wind drift on base leg
• Skidding turns in an effort to increase gliding distance
• Failure to lower landing gear in retractable gear airplanes
• Attempting to "stretch" the glide during an undershoot
• Premature flap extension/landing gear extension
• Use of throttle to increase the glide instead of merely clearing the engine
• Forcing the airplane onto the runway in order to avoid overshooting the designated landing spot

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Commercial Pilot & Flight Instructor Test Questions

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Lesson Plan Checklists