Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge
Chapter 1: Introduction To Flying
From prehistoric times, humans have watched the flight of birds and longed to imitate them. During the 1500s, Leonardo da Vinci filled pages of his notebooks with sketches of proposed flying machines, but most of his ideas were flawed because he clung to the idea of birdlike wings.
In 1783, the first manned hot air balloon, crafted by Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier, flew for 23 minutes. But the ability to control speed and direction eluded balloonists. Kites used by the Chinese for aerial observation, to test winds for sailing, as a signaling device, and as a toy, held many of the answers to lifting a heavier-than-air device into the air. Sir George Cayley, the "Father of Aerial Navigation," discovered the basic principles on which the modern science of aeronautics is founded; built what is recognized as the first successful flying model; and tested the first full-size man-carrying airplane. The Wright Brothers experimented for four years with kites, their own homemade wind tunnel, and different engines to power their biplane, which first flew at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, on December 17, 1903.
During the early years of manned flight, individuals were free to conduct flights and operate aircraft with no government oversight. Airmail was originally delivered by Army pilots, who used the routes for cross-country training. In 1918, the United States Postal Service took control of the airmail routes and brought the existing Army airmail pilots and their planes into the program as postal employees. Eventually, the Transcontinental Mail Route spanned from San Francisco to New York for a total distance of 2,612 miles with 13 intermediate stops along the way.
The 1926 Air Commerce Act served as the legislative cornerstone for aviation within the United States. Under this act, the Secretary of Commerce could issuing and enforcing air traffic rules, license pilots, certificate aircraft, establish airways, and operate and maintain aids to air navigation.
The Aeronautics Branch of the Commerce Department took over the construction and operation of the nation's system of lighted airways. Built at intervals of approximately 10 miles apart, standard beacon towers were 51 feet high and topped with a powerful rotating light. In 1936, the Bureau of Air Commerce took over the responsibilities of operating three Air Traffic Control centers, which were originally established and operated by airlines.
The Federal Aviation Act of 1958 established the newly created Federal Aviation Agency (FAA), which was given complete control of the common civil-military system of air navigation and ATC. To meet the challenge of traffic growth, the FAA unveiled the National Airspace System (NAS) Plan in January 1982. The new plan called for more advanced systems for en route and terminal ATC, modernized flight service stations, and improvements in ground-to-air surveillance and communication.
The FAA establishes safety standards for civil aviation under the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) — specifically, under Title 14, "Aeronautics and Space," which encompasses all aspects of civil aviation. Part 61 pertains to the certification of pilots. Part 91 provides guidance in the areas of flight rules. Part 43 covers aircraft maintenance.
The Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) is the official guide to basic flight information and A TC procedures. FAA Handbooks are developed to provide specific information about a particular topic that enhances training or understanding.
Aircraft flight manuals — commonly called Pilot Operating Handbooks (POH) — are developed by airplane manufacturers, specific to a particular make and model aircraft by serial number, and approved by the FAA.
An Advisory Circular (AC) is an informational document that the FAA wants to distribute to the aviation community. They are to be used for information only and are not regulations.
The FAA publishes and regularly updates aviation charts, as well as a Chart Supplement book.
Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs), are time-critical aeronautical information either temporary in nature or not sufficiently known in advance to permit publication on aeronautical charts or in other operational publications.
Aircraft
The FAA differentiates aircraft by their characteristics and physical properties. These include but are not limited to:
- An airplane is an engine-driven, fixed-wing aircraft that is heavier than air.
- A glider is a heavier-than-air aircraft that does not depend principally on an engine.
- An airship is an engine-driven lighter-than-air aircraft that can be steered.
- A balloon is a lighter-than-air aircraft that is not engine driven, and that sustains flight through the use of either gas buoyancy or an airborne heater.
- A rotorcraft is a heavier-than-air aircraft that depends principally for its support in flight on the lift generated by one or more rotors. This includes both helicopters and gyroplanes.
The FAA differentiates aircraft by weight:
- A large aircraft is more than 12,500 pounds maximum certificated takeoff weight.
- A small aircraft is 12,500 pounds or less maximum certificated takeoff weight.
- A Light Sport Aircraft (LSA) meets a definition set out in 14 CFR 1.1.
Aircraft are grouped by category, class, and type. These terms are used for both the certification of aircraft and pilots, with different definitions for both.
Pilot Certifications
Each type of pilot's certificate has privileges and limitations that are inherent within the certificate itself. Endorsements, a form of authorization, are written to establish that the certificate holder has received training in specific skill areas.
- Student pilots are being trained by an instructor pilot for their first full certificates (Sport, Recreational, or Private). They are permitted to fly alone (solo) under specific, limited circumstances.
- Sport pilots may operate as pilot in command (PIC) of a light-sport aircraft, carry one passenger, share expenses, and fly during the daytime under Visual Flight Rules (VFR).
- Recreational pilots cannot carry more than one passenger, travel more than 50 nautical miles from the point of departure, fly at night, or operate in airspace where ATC communication is required. Additionally, they may not operate an aircraft that is certificated for more than four occupants or has more than one engine.
- Private pilots are permitted to command any aircraft (subject to appropriate ratings) for any noncommercial purpose, with almost unlimited authority to fly under VFR. Passengers may be carried, and expenses can be shared pro rata. Flight in furtherance of a business is permitted. However a private pilot may not be compensated in any way for services as a pilot.
- A Commercial pilot may be compensated for flying, and s/he can take a job as a pilot. They are required to obtain an endorsement to operate a complex airplane, which has retractable landing gear, movable flaps, and a controllable-pitch propeller. Commercial pilots without an instrument rating are restricted to daytime flight within 50 NM when flying for hire.
- An Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) may serve as Pilot in Command (PIC) or Second in Command (SIC) of scheduled airline operations. The minimum pilot experience is 1,500 hours of flight time.
Medical Certifications
(Note: This content is adapted from the Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, Chapter 17, "Aeromedical Factors.").
Most pilots must have a valid medical certificate to exercise the privileges of their airman certificates. Sport pilots may use a valid state driver's license in place of a medical certificate. Pilots who have a medical certificate may not act as Pilot in Command (PIC) or a required crew-member if they know of any medical condition that would make them unable to perform their duties.
There are three classes of medical certificates, which are obtained from an Aviation Medical Examiner (AME).
- A third-class medical certificate is required for a private or recreational pilot certificate. It is valid for five (5) years for those individuals who have not reached the age of 40; otherwise it is valid for two (2) years.
- If working professionally, commercial pilots requires at least a second-class medical certificate, which is valid for one (1) year.
- First-class medical certificates are required for Airline Transport Pilots. They are valid for one (1) year if the airman is 40 or younger. For airmen 40 and older, certificates are valid for six (6) months.
The FAA medical standards, 14 CFR part 67, specify fifteen medical conditions that are considered disqualifying by "history or clinical diagnosis:"
- Diabetes mellitus requiring oral hypoglycemic medication or insulin
- Angina pectoris
- Coronary heart disease that has been treated or, if untreated, that has been symptomatic or clinically significant
- Myocardial infarction
- Cardiac valve replacement
- Permanent cardiac pacemaker
- Heart replacement
- Psychosis
- Bipolar disorder
- Personality disorder that is severe enough to have repeatedly manifested itself by overt acts
- Substance dependence (including alcohol)
- Substance abuse
- Epilepsy
- Disturbance of consciousness and without satisfactory explanation of cause
- Transient loss of control of nervous system function(s) without satisfactory explanation of cause
There are many other medical conditions that fall into the General Medical Condition section of the regulations that are considered by the FAA to be disqualifying, even though they are not stated in the regulations. This includes cancer, kidney stones, neurologic and neuromuscular conditions, and certain blood disorders,
If any of these conditions has been diagnosed and treated, an airman may only be issued a medical certificate through a process called Special Issuance Authorization (14 CFR part 67, section 67.401). This is a discretionary issuance by the FAA Federal Air Surgeon and requires satisfactory completion of special testing.
Private Pilot: Airplane Single Engine Rating (61.109)
For an airplane single-engine rating. Except as provided in paragraph (k) of this section, a person who applies for a private pilot certificate with an airplane category and single-engine class rating must log at least 40 hours of flight time that includes at least 20 hours of flight training from an authorized instructor and 10 hours of solo flight training in the areas of operation listed in § 61.107(b)(1) of this part, and the training must include at least:
Dual: 20 hours minimum of flight training with an instructor on the Private Pilot areas of operation including:
- 3 hours of cross country flight training in a single engine airplane;
- 3 hours of night flight training in a single engine airplane, that includes at least:
a) 1 cross country flight of over 100 nm total distance; and
b) 10 T/O's and 10 landings to a full stop with each involving a flight in the traffic pattern at an airport. - 3 hours of flight training by reference to instruments in a single engine airplane; and
- 3 hours of flight training in a single engine airplane within the 60 days prior to the practical test.
Solo: 10 hours minimum of solo flying in a single engine airplane on the Private Pilot areas of operation including:
- 5 hours of solo cross country flying;
- 1 solo cross country flight of at least 150nm total distance with full stop landings at 3 points and one segment of at least 50nm between takeoff and landings; and
- 3 takeoffs and landings to a full stop at an airport with an operating control tower.
"Cross Country" (61.1)
14 CFR 61.1 provides that "cross-country time" means:
(ii) For the purpose of meeting the aeronautical experience requirements (except for a rotorcraft category rating), for a private pilot certificate (except for a powered parachute category rating), a commercial pilot certificate, or an instrument rating, or for the purpose of exercising recreational pilot privileges (except in a rotorcraft) under §61.101(c), time acquired during a flight:
(A) Conducted in an appropriate aircraft;
(B) That includes a point of landing that was at least a straight-line distance of more than 50 nautical miles from the original point of departure; and
(C) That involves the use of dead reckoning, pilotage, electronic navigation aids, radio aids, or other navigation systems to navigate to the landing point.
Commercial Pilot & Flight Instructor Test Questions
Student Pilots
Who may issue a student pilot certificate? Aviation medical examiner, FAA inspector, designated pilot examiner. (61.85)
To be eligible for a student pilot certificate limited to airplanes, an applicate is required to be a least how old? 16 years. (61.83)
The minimum age requirement for the applicant who is seeking a Student Pilot Certificate limited to glider operations is 14.
Recreational Pilots
A recreational pilot certificate may be issued for airplanes, gyroplanes, and helicopters. (61.101)
— A recreational pilot may not act as PIC of a glider, airship, or balloon.
When is a recreational pilot required to carry a logbook with the required endorsement? On all flights when serving as pilot-in-command.
A recreational pilot with less than 400 hours' flight time may not act as pilot-in-command unless the pilot has logged pilot-in-command time in the last 180 days.
Commercial Pilots
To be eligible for a Commercial Pilot Certificate, a person must be at least 18 years of age.
As pilot, what is the minimum flight time in an aircraft an applicant must have for a Commercial Pilot Certificate with an airplane rating? 250 total hours, of which 200 must be flight hours.
To be eligible for a Commercial Pilot Certificate, one of the requirements is for the applicant to hold at least a valid Third-Class Medical Certificate.
— A Second-Class Medical Certificate is required to generate income.
What limitation is imposed on a newly certificated commercial airplane pilot if that person does not hold an instrument pilot rating? The carrying of passengers for hire on cross-country flights of more than 50 NM or at night is prohibited.
— Distractor: Carrying property is permitted.
Safety Pilots
A pilot in a multi-engine land airplane is planning to practice IFR procedures under a hood in VMC conditions. The safety pilot must possess at least a Private Pilot Certificate with airplane multi-engine land rating and a current medical certificate.
Flight Instructors
During any 24 consecutive hours, an instructor is limited to how many hours of flight training? Eight (8).
The holder of an expired Flight Instructor Certificate may exchange that certificate for a new one by passing the appropriate practical test.
— Invalid question as of 2025.
A Flight Instructor Certificate may be renewed by successfully completing a flight instructor refresher course within three (3) calendar months prior to renewal.
— Invalid question as of 2025.
To reinstate an expired flight instructor certificate, you must pass a practical test for one of your existing flight instructor ratings or pass a practical test for an additional flight instructor rating.
— Invalid question as of 2025.
You have an expired CFI certificate and you pass a practical test to add a seaplane rating to your flight instructor certificate. Your flight instructor certificate, including all ratings previously held, is renewed.
— Invalid question as of 2025.
If you hold an expired flight instructor certificate with instrument and multi-engine ratings, you must pass a flight instructor practical test for only one of your existing ratings to reinstate your certificate.
— Invalid question as of 2025.
What documents must a flight instructor have on board when conducting instruction for a commercial pilot applicant? Pilot certificate, flight instructor certificate, photo identification.
— Because a commercial pilot applicant can legally act as PIC, the instructor need not have a valid medical certificate.
A flight instructor who applies for an additional rating on that certificate must have a minimum of how many hours as pilot in command in the category and class of aircraft appropriate to the rating sought? At least 15 hours as pilot in command in the category and class of aircraft appropriate to the rating sought.
A person whose Flight Instructor Certificate has been suspended may not apply for any rating to be added to that certificate during the period of suspension.
Certain flight training is required for the issuance of a certificate. If that training is in a helicopter or multi-engine airplane, the instructor is required, in part, to have at least five (5) hours of experience as pilot in command in the make and model of aircraft involved.
The holder of a flight instructor certificate may not give flight training required for the issuance of a certificate or a category or class rating in a multi-engine airplane or a helicopter unless (s)he has at least five (5) hours of experience as pilot in command in the make and model of aircraft involved.
Type Ratings
Which of the following normally requires the pilot in command to hold a type rating? Any turbojet-powered aircraft.
Endorsements
To act as pilot in command of a tailwheel airplane without prior experience, a pilot must receive and log flight training from an authorized flight instructor.
— An endorsement also is required; however, ground training or a competency check is not required.
Which is applicable to a private plot with ASEL ratings who has never flown a tailwheel airplane? The pilot must have received instruction and received a logbook endorsement before acting as pilot in command. (61.31)
To act as pilot in command of an airplane with retractable landing gear, flaps, and controllable propeller, a person holding a Private or Commercial Pilot Certificate is required to receive ground and flight training in such an airplane, and obtain a logbook endorsement of proficiency.
To act as PIC of a high performance airplane, which training or experience would meet the additional requirements? Received and logged ground and flight training in a high performance airplane and received a logbook endorsement.
To act as pilot in command of an airplane that has more than 200Êhorsepower, a person holding a Private or Commercial Pilot Certificate is required to receive ground and flight training in an airplane that has more than 200Êhorsepower.
No person may act as pilot in command of a pressurized airplane with a service ceiling or maximum operating altitude, whichever is lower, above 25,000 feet unless that person has received ground and flight training in high altitude operations and a logbook endorsement certifying this training.
— Note: Pilots authorized prior to April 15, 1991 are not required. Watch for a distractor.
Which is applicable to a private pilot with ASEL ratings who has never flown a tailwheel airplane? The pilot must have received instruction and have a logbook endorsement before acting as pilot in command.
Currency
To meet the recent flight experience requirements for acting as pilot in command carrying passengers at night, a pilot must have made, within the preceding 90 days and from 1 hour after sunset to 1 hour before sunrise, three takeoffs and three landings to a full stop in the same category, class, and type (if a type rating is required).
You have accomplished 25Êtakeoffs and landings in multi-engine land airplanes in the previous 45Êdays. For a flight you plan to conduct today, this meets the PIC recency of experience requirements to carry passengers in a multi-engine land airplane.
What recent flight experience must be met before a commercial airplane pilot may fly solo in an airplane? Satisfactorily accomplished a flight review in any aircraft for which rated within the preceding 24 calendar months.
— A person may act as pilot in command of an aircraft if they have accomplished a flight review given in an aircraft for which that pilot is rated, by an appropriately rated instructor or other persons designated by the FAA, within the preceding 24 calendar months.
A private pilot has completed three takeoffs and three landings to a full stop within the preceding 90Êdays in a tricycle-gear airplane, single-engine land, and decides to take a passenger for a flight in a tailwheel airplane, single-engine land. Since these aircraft are of the same category and class, the pilot is current in the tricycle-gear airplane.
— Tailwheel is its own category for passenger currency.)
A flight review is not required if a pilot has completed, within the time specified a pilot proficiency check conducted by the FAA.
Testing
What minimum documentation is required to take an FAA knowledge test for any flight instructor rating, except sport? Proper identification.
Student pilot certificate applications can be accepted by an FAA inspector, a CFI, ACR, and DPE.
A written statement from an authorized instructor certifying that an applicant has received the required training in preparation for a practical test must be dated within two calendar months preceding the date of application.
What is one requirement for an aircraft furnished for a practical test? He or she must have no prescribed operating limitations that prohibit its use in any required area of operation Dual controls are not required.
An applicant for a Commercial Pilot Certificate with ASEL ratings presents a logbook with 254ÊhoursÕ total time. Of that, 20 hours are logged as SIC in single-engine airplanes certificated for single pilot operations. You determine this time was accumulated as safety pilot with another pilot who was flying "under the hood."Ê Does the applicant have enough total time to be eligible for the practical test? Yes, in this scenario the safety pilot also is the Pilot in Command.
A flight instructor applicant must demonstrate spins in an airplane or glider when being retested for deficiencies in instructional proficiency on stall awareness or spins demonstrated during an initial test.
An applicant has failed a knowledge test for the second time. With training and an endorsement from an authorized instructor, when may the applicant apply for a retest? Immediately.
A trainee that you have endorsed took a practical test for a pilot certificate on JanuaryÊ10 and failed to meet standards. After being retested on JanuaryÊ13 and failing to meet standards again, when is this trainee eligible to retest? Jan. 13.
An applicant who holds a Commercial Pilot Certificate with ASEL ratings is seeking a MEL rating at the commercial level. On August 1, 2021, the applicant shows you a second-class medical dated January 2, 2020. May the applicant take the practical test? Yes. the Second-Class Medical is required for commercial operations, not to take a test.
What action may be taken against a person whom the Administrator finds has cheated on a knowledge test? Any certificate or rating held by the person may be suspended or revoked.
To be eligible for a practical test under 14 CFR Part 61, an applicant must have passed the appropriate knowledge test (when required) within the preceding 24 calendar months.
Under 14 CFR Part 61, a commercial pilot-airplane applicant is required to have a minimum of how much cross-country experience? 50 hours.
If all increments for a practical test for a certificate or rating are not completed on one date, all remaining increments must be satisfactorily completed no later than 60 days from the date of the test.
A flight instructor recommendation is not required for an ATP applicant except when applying for a retest.
An applicant who fails a knowledge test for the first time may apply for retesting after presenting an endorsement from an authorized instructor certifying that additional training has been given and the applicant is competent to pass the test.
— There isn't any time requirements.
Regulations
What is the definition of the term "crewmember"? A person assigned to perform duty in an aircraft during flight time. (1.1)
When acting as pilot-in-command or as a required crew member, a pilot must have in his or her personal possession or readily accessible in the aircraft a current medical certificate, if required, and an appropriate pilot certificate.
Each person who holds a pilot certificate or a medical certificate shall present it for inspection upon the request of any local law enforcement officer.
You do not have to take a Private Pilot Glider Knowledge Test if you already hold any powered certificate. (Not limited to airplanes.)
When a permanent change of address occurs, pilot or instructor privileges may not be exercised unless the FAA Airmen Certification Branch is notified, in writing, within 30 days.
The holder of a pilot or instructor certificate who fails to notify the FAA Airmen Certification Branch in writing of a change in permanent mailing address may exercise the privileges of that certificate for 30 days after date of change.
Medical Certificates
If a Second-Class Medical Certificate was issued to a commercial pilot 13 months ago, during the next 11 months this pilot may act as pilot in command and carry passengers or property, but not for compensation or hire.
What is the duration of a medical certificate for a pilot 40 years or older, seeking a private pilot-airplane certificate? 24 calendar months from the month in which it was issued. (61.19)
A Third-Class Medical Certificate was issued on May 3 to a person over 40 years of age. To exercise the privileges of a Private Pilot Certificate, the medical certificate will be valid through May 31, 24 months later. (61.23)
Can a 43-year-old student pilot fly solo with a first-class medical certificate that was issued 15 months ago? Yes; the pilot may exercise student pilot privileges. (61.23)
What class medical certificate, if any, is required for a person adding a rating to a pilot certificate? Third class. (61.39)
Basic Med
In order to qualify for BasicMed, you must have received a comprehensive examination from a state-licensed physician within the previous 48 months.
— This is a rare FAA regulation that is not stated in calendar months. It's 48 months to the day.
You own an aircraft which is certificated to carry 8 occupants and has a total of 8 seats installed, including the pilotÕs seat. You have recently elected to fly under BasicMed. May you continue to fly the aircraft? No.
— BasicMed is limited aircraft certified with no more than six seats, not modified to have only six seats.
If you are operating under BasicMed, you may fly an aircraft at a maximum speed of 250ÊKIAS.
— Above or below 10,000Êft. is a distractor. Basic Med pilots have few practical restrictions. They are permitted to fly aircraft with certificated with six or fewer seats and less than 6,000 lbs. up to 250 knots below FL 180.
If you are operating under BasicMed, you may fly an aircraft with a maximum certificated takeoff weight of no more than 6,000 lb.
A pilot recently passed the commercial pilot checkride while operating under BasicMed and has been offered a job as a jump pilot at a skydiving operation. Is the pilot qualified for this role? No, the pilot needs a Second-Class Medical Certificate to take a job as a pilot.
Misc.
A person who the Administrator finds has cheated or committed any unauthorized act during a knowledge test may not take another knowledge test within one year.
The need to revise the traditional divisions of "normal, utility, acrobatic, and commuter categories" results from technological developments in lightweight, high-performance airplanes.
An airplane certified for flight into known icing conditions in Supercooled Large Drops (SLD) must provide a means to detect icing and be capable of avoiding or exiting any conditions beyond those certified.
How long does the Airworthiness Certificate of an aircraft remain valid? As long as the aircraft is maintained and operated as required by Federal Aviation Regulations.
A private pilot with an airplane single-engine land rating may act as pilot in command of an airplane towing a glider if, within the preceding 24 months, this pilot has made three flights as pilot in command of a glider towed by an aircraft.
— The regs require tow-pilots to have glider training and currency.
Conviction of an offense involving alcohol or drugs is grounds for suspension or revocation of any certificate or rating issued under 14 CFR Part 61.